고려후기 군제(軍制)의 변화상 연구 - 만호(萬戶) 및 외관(外官)과의 관계를 중심으로

Abstract

주지하는 바와 같이 고려는 왕조 후반 많은 전란을 겪었다. 13세기 전반에는 몽골의 침공이 있었고, 후반에는 원의 강요로 인한 일본정벌이 있었으며 세기말에는 카다안이 침구했다. 14세기 중엽에는 왜구의 준동이 시작됐고, 그에 홍건적 침공까지 겹치면서 왕조 방위가 그 어느 때보다도 중요해졌다. 자연히 고려의 군제 또한 상황에 맞춰 다양한 모습으로 운영되었다. 당시 관찰되는 변화 중 무엇보다도 주목되는 것은 (원 군제로서의) 만호[부]제의 도입, 그리고 고려말 각종 군직(軍職)들의 복잡다단한 운영상이다. 만호부에 대해서는 이미 적지 않은 검토가 시도되었고, 고려 군제(軍制)의 14세기 동태에 대해서도 여러 탁월한 연구들이 발표돼 왔다. 다만 두 정황을 연결시켜보려는 시도는 그리 많지 않았다. 본고에서는 두 정황이 서로 연동돼 있었을 가능성에 착목, 군직의 외관적 성격이 강화되는 한편으로 그 군직들이 서로 통합돼 가던 추세에 [외래제도이자 이후 고려제도로도 변신했던] 만호[부]가 모종의 역할을 한 바 있었음을 살펴보고자 한다.

In the 13th and 14th centuries, the Goryeo militaty system displayed some peculiar aspects. Weonsu and Jihwi-sa commanders, the Sunmun-sa administrators and Byeongma-sa officials were named and dispatched. The frrst two had been sporadically appointed since the early years of the Goryeo period and also surfaced sometimes in the 13th century. The Sunmun-sa figures first appeared in early 13th century and continued to be dispatched throughout the remainder of the dynasty. The Byeongma-sa figures were the ones that had been most utilized in Goryeo's first three hundred years, but their appearances started to decline in the late 13th century. In short, in the first and second halves of the 13th century, some of the military leaders were appointed rather frequently while others were dispatched not that much. Yet they shared one trend: They all suddenly vanished from official records in the frrst half of the 14th century. Then, coming into the second half of the 14th century a rather interesting phenomenon started to form. After the year of 1356, all these four figures resumed their appearances in a rather explosive fashion. And most importantly, Weonsu, Jihwi-sa and Sunmun-sa entities started to appear 'coupled' with a unique counterpart: the Manho(-bu) figures which had been being installed by the Goryeo government since 1358. These "Goryeo Manho(-bu)" figures inherited a rather specific "local" quality from their earlier incarnations, which had been installed in Goryeo in the late 13th and early 14th centuries by no other than the Mongol Yuan empire. It was a quality that resembled that of ordinary local administrative offices. As a result, these Goryeo Manho(-bu) figures came to function as essentially semi-local administrative units. And through their linkage with their counterparts(Weonsu, Jihwi-sa, SunmlU1-sa), the Gm-yeo Manho (-bu) units began to transmit such quality over to them. Infused with such rather new qualities, the Goryeo military officials began to display functions that were usually demonstrated only by the local administrative officials. They were dispatched to serve local capacities, and showed increased interactions with local officials. Both military commanders and military administrators continued to operate that way, making it less and less necessary for them to be appointed separately (as one being named as either Weonsu or Sunmlill-sa) as they had been. As a result, all these Goryeo military leaders, especially the commanders (Weonsu) and administrators (Sunmun-sa), started to merge with each other, as we can see from quite notable examples of them being 'coupled' and then assigned to a single official, who was expected to serve both duties at the same time. Later, such coupling of military responsibilities was finally officialized through the launch of a brand new Jeolje-sa institution in 1389. What should be noted is the fact that all these new-style local military officials were officially granted with the jurisdiction to intervene and oversee 'civilian' administrative matters -which had been lillder the direct authority of the local officials only- as well. It effectively brought down the wall that traditionally existed between military business and civilian governing in Goryeo local communities. We can see that the Manho(-bu) institution, which was an adopted institution and not to mention quite foreign in nature, served as an unlikely and lillexpected catalyst that triggered such important changes to proceed, within two major areas of Goryeo domestic governance: the military system and the local administrative structure.